Energy Is The Primary Reason - 904 Words

Energy is the primary reason because of which we have been able to enjoy far better standards of living than what we used to enjoy just a century ago. It has enabled the industrial revolution, agricultural revolution and manifold increase in speed of communication. All of this combined leads to improvements in living standard that is within reach of mankind. But this energy is not without any cost, it entails with it associated costs to our air, water and land along with changing climate (signified by rapidly melting glaciers and polar ice caps). And weather the energy which we use can be sustained for long time or not depends on if it is renewable or not, also weather it produces lot of pollutants or not. In Florida an average household uses energy in home in the form of cooking gas which is derived directly from the natural gas (LPG). For domestic purposes electricity is used that can be produced from gas or coal or nuclear sources or any other renewable. In transportation petroleu m is used which is non renewable. In work place for running computers or any other machines electricity is used. Also for cooking biomass which is a renewable source is also used. In the form of electricity which is produced in Florida is primarily from Coal (2900 GWh), Nuclear energy (1400 GWh) than followed by which has Natural gas (900 GWh) (http://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=FL). Domestic consumption is constitutes 20.8 % of total energy available. On the other hand transportation which utilizesShow MoreRelatedGlobal Warming And Its Effect On The Global Environment1144 Words   |  5 Pagesand floods. The primary reason for global warming has been identified as the continuous increase in energy demand by the global population, which has further increased the dependence of global energy industry on burning fossil fuels. Accordingly, a review of literature is conducted to assess the primary reasons and possible solutions of global warming, in order to protect the global environment in the shorter as well as longer run. Summaries Bose, B. K. (2010). Global warming: Energy, environmentalRead MoreA Research Paper Rough Draft1218 Words   |  5 Pagesconverting fossil fuels into energy. People are able to take the fossilized remains and turn them into the everyday fuel everyone in the world uses. However, the energy humans have been using is not clean. The more people use fossil fuels, the more the planet dies. Fortunately, scientists and engineers were able to come up with ways to renew energy. They created new technologies that are capable of harvesting the sun’s rays, water currents, and wind power. Even though renewable energy sources like this haveRead MoreThe Depletion of Energy Sources Due to Global Warming795 Words   |  3 PagesEnergy represents an important aspect in our life for all living creatures. It was defined as the quantity that will be assigned to every particle, object and the systems of objects (Harper, 2007). Besides that, energy plays a fundamental role in the continuous developm ent and the economic growth of every country. Meanwhile, the depletion of energy sources and the global climate change push the world to look for better solutions in the sustainable sources of energy (Dermirci and Miele, 2009). 1Read MoreQuiz on Ecological Trophic Pyramid677 Words   |  3 PagesEcological Trophic Pyramid Of the primary producers selected which one do you think has the biggest impact on the ecosystem you researched? Of the primary producers found in this environment, probably the one with the biggest impact on the ecosystem is grass because the blades feed the primary consumers who then feed the rest of the food chain. Although other plants also fulfill this function, grass is eaten in the most abundant quantities and also grows the most. What species did you selectRead MoreElectrical Device Between Two Circuit Through Electromagnetic Induction1205 Words   |  5 PagesINTRODUCTION The transformer is an electrical device which transfers energy between two circuit through electromagnetic induction. Transformer may be used as a safe and efficient voltage changer to change the Alternating Current voltage at it’s input to a higher and lower voltage at its output without changing it’s frequency. Other uses include current conversion, isolation with or without changing impedance and voltage conversion. A transformer consists of two windings of wire that are wound aroundRead MoreNuclear Energy And Nuclear Power Essay1582 Words   |  7 PagesNuclear Energy For many Americans, the electric bill is the most dreaded bill to arrive each month; it is always expensive, yet it doesn’t have to be. To lower electricity costs for citizens and businesses, the Unites States could increase its use of nuclear power. Nuclear energy is created when an unstable radioactive element decays and emits nanoparticles called radiation. With today’s current technology, the emission of these atoms as well as the energy released can be controlled and used inRead MoreThe Car Of The Future879 Words   |  4 Pagesinternal combustion engines are the primary engines used for cars and other vehicles in the world today (â€Å"Model T†). These engines are in the same vehicles that people use every day and fill gas with to fulfill their needs. The world fossil fuel and global warming crises ask for an alternative that reserves energy and lowers emissions. That alternative is the electric engine. The recent innovations in electric engineering have made electric vehicles more energy efficient, quieter, and cleaner thanRead MoreAir Pollution Essay958 Words   |  4 Pagessplit into primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, are ones directly released into the atmosphere. Secondary pollutants, like smog for example, are the result of primary pollutants intermingling with the already existing particles in the atmosphere. The largest source of air pollution in most any city environment is vehicle exhaust, which releases high amounts of carbon dioxide. Fossil fuels also present a wider scale problem when they are burned for energy in powerRead MoreAmerican History: Study Notes1649 Words   |  7 Pagesto bring about a successful conclusion of the crisis, added to the fact that he was unable to deal with an energy crisis, led to his being perceived as weak and ineffectual and sank his chances for a second term. President Jimmy Carter delivered an address to the nation on July 15, 1979 which has been called his Crisis of Confidence speech. While he had intended to speak about the energy crisis that was crippling the American economy, he instead spoke about what he called a crisis of confidenceRead MoreNew Energy for the Future1358 Words   |  6 PagesNew Energy for the Future For years man has relied on energy in order to be successful in life. The industrial revolution relied on coal for the new inventions brought into the world. Life as has never been the same since then. However since that time, there has been little done to improve on energy efficiency and humans still primarily rely on fossil fuels for energy. For over a hundred years the Earth has become more polluted and dirtier than ever before. Now, with new, innovative technology there

The Effects Of Age Related On The Motivation Of Learning...

A Review of the Research on Age-Related Differences in the Motivation of Learning EFL Abstract: The investigation on the language learning motivation has long been the active field among the linguistics. This essay is a review study of a research made by Judit Kormos and Kata Csizer who aimed to test the theory of Dà ¶rnyei, namely L2 motivational self system (Dà ¶rnyei, The L2 motivational self system, 2009) by focusing on the learners’ motivation in studying English as a foreign language in three different groups of people in Hungary: secondary school students, university students and adult language learners. Key words: Motivation; Age; Research Review 1. Introduction Motivation was firstly studied by Gardner Lambert in 1959. During the past decades, L2 motivation has been a focus in the empirical studies under the context of second language learning. In terms of L2 motivation, Researches on the time dimension of L2 motivation are essential to our developing investigations of L2 motivation throughout the lengthy process of learning and teaching (Ghenghesh, 2010). This essay is a review about Judit Kormos and Kara Crizer work named Age-related Differences in the Motivation of Learning English as a Foreign Language: Attitudes, Selves, and Motivated Leaning Behavior in 2008 on the motivation of learning English as a foreign language (EFL) among three different age group population in Hungary. They also verify the validity of Dornyei’s L2 motivational self system. The systemShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Teachers Motivational Strategies On Second Language Learning2074 Words   |  9 PagesThe Effects of Teachers’ Motivational Strategi es on Second Language Learning Hamline University Meghan Scheidel April 5, 2015 Introduction Student motivation and engagement is crucial for success in language learning. Motivation has been widely discussed by leading scholars like, Dornyei and Gardner (use first names) of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), particularly focusing on how it affects English Language Learners (ELLs) performance in various aspects of the L2 languageRead MoreMotivators That Do Not Motivate: The Case of Chinese EFL Learners and the Influence of Culture on Motivation8163 Words   |  33 PagesChinese EFL Learners and the Influence of Culture on Motivation JUDY F. CHEN The Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China CLYDE A. WARDEN National Chung Hsing University Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China HUO-TSAN CHANG National Changhua University of Education Chunghua, Taiwan, Republic of China It is a capital mistake to theorize in advance of the facts. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventure of the Second Stain (1930, p. 657) Language learning motivationRead MoreThe Article By Jan H. Hulstijn And Batia Laufer1266 Words   |  6 Pagesby which the tasks can be described as more effective than the others. The authors explain the motivation of their study by providing an important step in further understanding of the process of vocabulary acquisition. Methods: The article provides a detailed description of two experiments investigating whether second language learners’ ability to incidentally remember vocabulary depends on learning tasks and their â€Å"involvement loads†. The students in two different countries were divided intoRead MoreTeaching Second / Foreign Language From Contractive Analysis Point Of View And Discusses How It Helps Develop Learners5957 Words   |  24 Pagess language system and the way it changes over time is investigated. The importance of pragmatics in language use and how it can change meaning in a given context is also discussed. To make use of code-switching, different models and taxonomies related to it are reviewed based on which beneficial teaching techniques and useful classroom activities are suggested. In this study the researcher provides a theoretical guideline based on which teachers can use codeswitching as a useful technique to helpRead MoreEfl Students’ Attitudes Towards Learning English Language: the Case of Libyan Secondary School Students Dr. Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia E-8923 Words   |  36 Pageswww.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 8, No. 2; February 2012 EFL Students’ Attitudes towards Learning English Language: The Case of Libyan Secondary School Students Dr. Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia E-mail: Jafre@usm.my Majid Pour-Mohammadi (Corresponding author) Department of English Translation, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran Tel: 60-17-605-4350 E-mail: majid.pourmohammadi@gmail.com Hanan Alzwari SchoolRead MoreFactors Affecting the Second Language Learners Fluency.2158 Words   |  9 Pagesquestions such as: What is fluency? Are there different types of fluency? Do social factors have the same influence on (SLLF) or not? Theoretical background To answer the research question and the sub-questions, I will rely on different writings related to the subject such as books, articles and electronic resources. Proficiency and Fluency One of the problems which faced many researchers is to define fluency accurately. Leeson (1975:136) suggested that fluency is the faculty of the speaker to createRead MoreLearning Vocabulary And Impacts Of Reading Essay10232 Words   |   41 Pagesreviews the literature from the past researches or opinions about the important of the learning vocabulary and impacts of reading and short story in the scope of language learning and teaching and also the relation between reading, short story and vocabulary learning. Theattention of this section especially is on reviewing of the impacts of the reading story on English, especially, vocabulary learning of the EFL learners. For the first part of this chapter, it’s better to start with the definitionRead MoreThe Use of Literature in Teaching English as a Foreign Language6056 Words   |  25 Pagesproblems encountered by language teachers within the area of teaching English through literature( i.e. lack of preparation in the area of literature teaching in TSL/TEFL, programs, absence of clear-cut objectives, defining the role of literature in ESL/EFL, language teachers not having the background and training in literature, lack of pedagogically-designed appropriate materials that can be used by language teachers in a classroom context) are taken into account. 1. Introduction In recent yearsRead MoreA Review on Reading Theories and Its Implication to the Teaching of Reading5137 Words   |  21 Pagesfor students learning to read in their second language (SL) or foreign language (FL). For students who are learning a SL/FL reading is the most crucial skill to master due to several reasons. First, students can usually perform at a higher level in reading than in any other skills. They can quite accurately understand written materials that they could not discuss orally or in writing with equivalent accuracy or thoroughness. Such condition will undoubtedly enhance their motivation to learn. SecondRead MoreSelf Efficacy Of Students And Its Effect On Academic Achievement1852 Words   |  8 PagesAssessment Of Faculty Staff Support and Sense of Self Efficacy of Students and Its Effect on Their Academic Achievement. Protocol Submitted For Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement of the Master Degree in Nursing Services Administration By Zeinab Ahmed Mohammed Abd Elnaby. B .Sc. Nursing Tanta University [2011] Under Supervision Of Assist. Prof. Kareema Ahmed Assistant Professor of Nursing Administration Faculty of Nursing Tanta University DR. Nora Ahmed

Factors Affecting Transformation in Architecture Free Essays

As quoted by Greek philosopher Heraclitus –â€Å"Everything alterations and nil bases still.†Its right to state that with clip there is a alteration in life style, civilization and environment which tends worlds to reform their heads and milieus. We adapt ourselves to our environment and milieus. We will write a custom essay sample on Factors Affecting Transformation in Architecture or any similar topic only for you Order Now Our first immediate context is the surrounding in which we live – shelter. The intent of shelter is to assist fulfill the physical and psychological demands of adult male. This calls for a shelter that would protect and carry through all the demands. This shelter is what we term as house. â€Å"Shelter is of supreme importance to adult male. It is the premier factor in his changeless battle for endurance. In his attempts to shelter himself against the extremes of conditions and clime he has, over the ages, evolved many types of dwellings.†( Schoenauer, N A ; Seeman, S 1962, p3 ) â€Å"The house is an establishment created for a complex set of intents. The edifice of it is a cultural phenomenon and its signifier and organisation are greatly influenced by the cultural surroundings to which it belongs†¦ If the proviso of shelter is the inactive map of the house, so its active intent is the creative activity of an environment best suited to the manner of life of people.†( Bhalla, A 1998, p5 ) The above really clearly states that the signifier and design of the brooding unit is based on the clime and civilization ( manner of life of people ) . Both of these factors are transforming due to invasion of scientific discipline therefore transforming the life spaces we reside in. This is an effort to analyze these germinating fluctuations of brooding unit from traditional typology of courtyard house to match-box type flats in Delhi, chiefly concentrating on the latter. Delhi being the one of the antediluvian every bit good as newest metropolis, provides us with the chance for analyzing non merely the earlier or latest form but besides all the subsequent phases of development. In Delhi, lodging transmutations have changed general traditional form of house signifier to modern-day manner of mass lodging to run into the increasing demands of lodging stock and to carry through modern aspirations of people. Assorted inquiries raised during the brainstorming that the survey needs to reply: Change in life infinites was required or it’s merely the western influence? How edifices response to civilization, are they interlinked? How the altering life style has changed the typology of brooding unit? What are the factors behind these transmutations? Are we heading towards right alteration? To happen replies to above inquiries, I would wish to analyze an illustration of brooding unit of Shahjahanabad, Colonial Delhi, and plotted development each and research on the development of flats from DDA Housing to Co-operative Housing to latest tendency of P.P.P. ( Public Private Partnership ) . Factors act uponing the transmutations There is displacement from ancient house designs to current times. House in older times was a topographic point of societal assemblage where people had their emotions attached, with more people but less furniture / contraptions while today house is like a large machine with less people managing all the hello – tech appliances. This is the journey from the natural airing to conditioned air, from natural visible radiation to LED, from societal amusement to telecasting, from green Fieldss to high rise edifices and so on. There are some influencing factors that lead to these alterations and hence taking to alter in reinforced signifiers. These determiners are listed in assorted ways by assorted writers, philosophers, designers, pupils etc. For illustration ; Ar.Charles Correa, in his essay ‘Transfers and Transformations’ , referred thatâ€Å"architecture is at the intersection of major three forces. The first represents engineering and economic sciences, the 2nd, civilization and history, and the 3rd, the aspiration of people†¦ Architecture is an agent of chage.†All three forces are altering with the clip and hence altering the architectural manner. Point of views of some more people are discussed below: Assorted factors considered by Amos Rapoport in his book ‘House, Form and Culture’ to analyze their influence on the built signifier are: Climate: Climatic determinism has been widely accepted in architecture. One demand non deny the importance of clime in finding the function in the creative activity of reinforced signifier. We build houses to maintain in a consistent clime, and to maintain out marauders. Materials, Construction, and Technology: These are non the signifier determiners but are the modifying factors. They decide neither what is to be built nor its signifier. They make possible the enclosure of a infinite organisation decided upon for other grounds, and perchance modify that organisation. They facilitate and make possible or impossible certain determinations, but ne’er decide or determine signifier. Change of stuffs does non needfully alter the signifier of house. Site / Topography: It is non certain that any consistent theory of site as a signifier determiner has of all time been proposed. It is still a inquiry if the site has finding influence on the reinforced signifier. Defense: Defense has been cited more to account for tight urban forms that to find the signifier of homes. Economicss / Occupation: Economicss has been widely used to explicate colony and edifice signifier and its importance is so great. For illustration, herder life among agricultural people fails to accept their economic system, manner of life and house signifier. Religion / Culture: Amos Rapoport refers to the ‘The Temple and the House’ by Raglan who demonstrated that the house is much more than merely a shelter, there is something ‘the sacredness of the house’ . Some civilizations separated the house from their faith while for some – the house was the lone temple. Amos Rapoprt inferred that faith affects the signifier, program, spacial agreements and the orientation of the house but that is non cosmopolitan or inevitable determiner. He linked the civilization to faith and stated the illustrations from all over the universe where colonies and built signifiers are influenced by the universe and waies as proposed by faith. Basic demands: There are some basic demands as considered by Amos in his book ‘House, Form and Culture’ that determines the house signifier such as household, place of adult females, privateness and societal intercourse. Assorted factors considered by Dharmender Aggarwal in his thesis ‘Transformations of residential countries in walled metropolis of Delhi – Shahjahanabad’ to analyze their influence on the transmutations of life infinites are: Role of Lifestyle: The mentality of adult male alterations from clip to clip. The manner he sees the universe around him, the mode in which he wants to set up with the exterior, the manner universe is like to projected to him and the manner in which he would wish to project himself – all these constitute major portion in his life style and all these shapes the infinite in which he lives. Personal values: The adult male has become more introvert. Peoples want minimal and formal dealingss with others. The nature of attitude towards outside universe has changed. As the house to suit human existences along with his values, hence such alteration in his values do alter the house signifier. Besides, people’s personal picks have changed, aesthetic values have alterations which calls for the transmutation in their home unit. Social values: The households are interrupting up. The construct of joint household is no more acceptable to bulk of people. The house which used to associate to larger graduated table is now related to smaller graduated table and therefore less complexness. Now, one wants minimal intercession and the sense of district is more definite. Such alterations do find the house signifier. House Hold Properties: The industrial revolution has great impact on many frontages of society. The industry and scientific discipline have more to offer for luxury, for amusement, for functional installation and comfort. These add-ons have changed the life style and house signifier has to react to these alterations. Climate: Climate has major influence in the alteration of house signifier. Temperature, humidness, air current, rain, and radiation are major constituents of clime that need to be taken attention for while finding the house signifier. Material and Construction Technology: Material and building engineering have important impact on the house signifier. Handiness of Land: Handiness of land affects the transmutation due to degree of division and alteration of land usage form. The subdivision leads to higher denseness and accelerator to transmutation. Deducing from above and as per my apprehension and treatment with my usher, following are the determiners act uponing the transmutations of life infinites: img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.004.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.003.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.002.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.001.png" img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.006.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.005.png"Housing = Land + Development + House Sociable: Social is a wide term that brings under many sub factors under itself. It constitutes cultural, personal and spiritual determiners. With the fast moving lives, we are at a phase where we have about left behind our ancient societal values. In older times, similar households non merely stayed together buta ­Ã‚ ­lsofunctioned as one immense macro household where differentiations were few. With the gradual dissolution of the household system and diffusion of society, the households moved off and the demand to remain together was no longer felt. Therefore, these yearss, atomic households are more than joint households, particularly in metro metropoliss like Delhi. Peoples are self sustained in footings of interaction. They have their ain appliances to be busy with alternatively of societal interaction and if they have societal interactions, so those are merely the formal 1s. It is the clip of more of individuality. As we are heading towards a globalisation, aspirations of people have changed, civilization have taken a bend. Now, house is non merely a shelter but it represents the position symbol. Conditioned anteroom with LED telecasting has replaced unfastened to flip courtyards, acquiring off from nature. The civilization has been influenced by west so much that it has changed the attitude and behavior within the household construction. The individuality has evolved really strongly in present times. Now, every single member in household demands their ain private infinite in the house while in earlier times, household of 10 kids slept, read and resided in individual room / courtyard. Earlier household functioned under the leading of individual caput. The members followed and respected his / her sentiment. In class of clip, household grew smaller and the kids and adult females gained equal importance. Due rise in position of adult females, direct effect can seen on house, kitchen has become a t opographic point of chief accent while planing, while earlier, it was the most ignored component. The present coevals have let lavatories to come in their sleeping rooms as compared to traditional times when those were placed off from house. Therefore, with changing civilization we need to transform the infinites we inhabit in. Hence it is really justly statedâ€Å"The house signifier is non a simple effect of physical forces or any individual insouciant factor, but is the effect of a whole scope of socio – cultural factors seen in their broadest terms.†( Seminar 4, 2002, p62, S.P.A. ) Economic / Functional: The house needs to supply the needed infinite for every map. But in the class of clip, the maps to be served have wholly changed. Earlier it was the cookery, sleeping and other family work to be done in house and besides to function as their topographic point for business. Peoples used have cowss, farm equipments, and the storage, but now, one has segregated their business wholly from their house. Today’s house is merely supposed to be lived in holding the upper limit installations, doing the life at its best. Besides, with the globalisation and entrance of MNC’s in and around Delhi, it has increased buying power of certain subdivision of society. With this, people are choosing for latest engineering. Again this engineering has intruded in all the parts of house from populating to bathroom, therefore altering the signifier of house. The new house has become the premier means to denote their reaching in higher category. Therefore, economic system has direct effect on the house. Climatic: The house needs to be built in coordination with the clime to supply comfy environment to the dweller. Though, there is non much alteration in clime of Delhi from earlier times, but there is debut of engineering and newer theories that lay down guidelines to construct. Earlier excessively we had guidelines that might be based on clime, but were practised in the name of God. Since we have intervened new proved guidelines and advanced engineering, therefore we have transformation in the life infinites. img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.008.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.013.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.012.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.011.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.008.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.010.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.009.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.008.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.008.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.008.png"img alt="" src="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/aaimagestore/essays/1165422.007.png"Identifying the consecutive lodging typol ogies in Delhi from 17Thursdaycentury to current times. How to cite Factors Affecting Transformation in Architecture, Essay examples

Evidence Based Health Practice Adjuvant Chemotherapy

Question: Describe about the Evidence Based Health Practice for Adjuvant Chemotherapy. Answer: A critique of Jeffs, E., Wiseman, T. (2013). Randomised controlled trial to determine the benefit of daily home-based exercise in addition to self-care in the management of breast cancer-related lymphoedema: a feasibility study.Supportive Care in Cancer,21(4), 1013-1023. Breast cancer related lymphoedema (BCRL) has long been identified as an additional repercussion to women cancer survivors impeding their normal lives. Therapeutic interventions to address their conditions by means of suitable exercise and self care strategies have been proposed to result in positive outcomes for the patients. However, dearth of evidences to support the hypothesis was found in the context of BCRL that may create a gap in practice and clinical research. Therefore, to procure insight into this matter, other literatures need to be reviewed thoroughly to obtain better understanding. CONSORT 2010 checklist helps to critically appraise the published trial reports. A critical appraisal of this article published in 2013 will be done in accordance with the CONSORT 2010 checklist utilizing RCT to evaluate the feasibility of daily home based exercise interventions before undertaking a larger RCT to treat stable BCRL in women. Title and Abstract The article (Jeffs Wiseman, 2013) under consideration clearly states the research study conducted as the randomized controlled trial in the name of the title itself. Further in the structured abstract portion, the research design, methodology adopted, important findings and relevant conclusions that can be extrapolated from the results have been mentioned in a comprehensive manner. Introduction Background and Objectives Breast cancer have thwarted the lives of a large proportion of women worldwide and reports of the chronic condition of lymphoedema in the breast cancer survivors following treatment have been found to negatively impact their quality of living to a great extent and the number is surging. Evidence based studies pertinent to breast cancer related lymphoedema (BCRL) have highlighted on the symptoms, diagnosis, reduction of risks and management strategy to tackle this debilitating problem (Fu, 2014). Evidences contraindicates that manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) is not suitable for preventing or managing BCRL (Huang et al., 2013). Other studies have provided alternative, superior and cost-effective tool such as measurement of tissue dielectric constant (TDC) to estimate the changes in the water content of the tissues thereby acting as an indicator of early onset of BCRL (Haen, 2012). Upper body resistance exercises have borne positive implications for cancer survivors with BCRL fostering improved physical functionality and overall health status in some studies (Cormie et al., 2013). Similar findings support the view that high intensity resistance exercise training (RET) has the potential to influence the muscular strength in the breast cancer survivors with BCRL (Nelson, 2016). Thus, the efficacy of the proposed exercise regime as a treatment modality to tackle BCRL in the chosen article can be very well corroborated with other studies of similar kind. The primary objective set up by the investigators emphasizes in differentiating the declined levels of the excess limb volume (ELV) among both the studied groups, with the control group subjected to only self care phase and the interventional group experiencing self care in addition to daily home-based exercise program. In this context, the findings from relevant research may be cited which states that prescription for and adherence to BCRL self care techniques are not optimized but variable for the breast cancer survivors (Brown et al., 2014). The secondary objectives in the given study accounted for vital considerations concerning the impacts of the exercise in quality of life, range of movement (ROM) of the shoulder and operation of the arms associated to BCRL. Recent investigations have also thrown light upon these paraphernalia of BCRL, determining the changes in arm volume following sessions of low and heavy load resistance exercise and prepare prescription guidelines according ly (Bloomquist, 2016). Therefore, the projected objectives in the given study offer scope for further probe into the matter. Methods Trial Design RCT in the chosen study aimed to generate reproducible, authentic results by virtue of eliminating the selection bias. The pilot mode of experiment predicted the feasibility of the research undertaken in terms of time, cost, and adverse consequences if any. Study utilizing the therapeutic effects of Yogic interventions to manage BCRL have also adopted randomized controlled pilot for their research work (Loudon et al., 2014). Hence, the choice of the trial design is found to be appropriate. Participants Careful examination of the medical records for the BCRL patients identified 532 patients to be suitable. The inclusion criterion was the BCRL in unilateral arm with stable swelling for at least 3 months and 10% ELV. Exclusion criteria included previous history for bilateral breast cancer treatment, factors contributing to alteration in limb volumes and documented non-conformity with agreed self care practices. Abiding by the criteria 85 was found to be suitable and invitation along with the Patient information sheet was sent to these potential candidates seeking their approval to participate in the study. Out of the 85, 39 consented to participate. Thereafter by means of rigorous telephonic screening and screening appointments, a handful of 23 participants were finally chosen to be included. 11 out of 23 formed the interventional group, while the remaining 12 comprised the control group. Thus, selection of the subjects was carried out in a stepwise methodical fashion minimizing the negative factors as far as practicable. Interventions The interventional strategy improvised and implemented was in accordance with the standard guidelines and protocols followed to ensure MLD. The exercise recommended for the interventional group (IG) was an amalgamation of breathing, hand pumping as well as gravity resistive isotonic arm exercises. The IG participants were trained and instructed to do the prescribed exercises through demonstrations and necessary follow up was conducted at every encounter to allay any sort of apprehension. Thus the interventions were completely justified. Outcomes As per the predefined primary and secondary measurement outcomes, the measurements and estimations were undertaken. Clinical measurements comprised limb volume assessment through standard optoelectric device, weight and height to calculate the body mass index (BMI), range of movement of the shoulder during each visit in the study tenure at weeks 0, 4, 12 and 26. Functional status and self study report regarding the quality of life (QOL) of the participants were procured as well from relevant questionnaire. Sample Size The population of 23 respondents adds to the sample size in the givens study. All 23 participants out of the originally screened 532 records expressed their willingness to volunteer in the study and fulfilled all the inclusion criteria to be eligible. No breach of participation or any sort of interim analysis was applicable in this particular studied case that favored the reliability of the research. Randomisation Subjects were randomly assigned by virtue of applying sequentially numbered sealed envelopes to either CG or IG. Randomisation was conducted in blocks of six and eight in order to justify the balanced nature of allocation for the respective groups in case the recruitment was not sufficient. Allocation concealment mechanism Allocation of groups was carried out in blocks of six and eight through sequentially numbered sealed envelopes as a measure to maintain balance if subject recruitment was inadequate. Implementation The random allocation scheme was conceptualized by the researchers themselves to suit their research setting. Participants were enrolled under the supervision of two nurses specializing in lymphoedema treatment, three experienced physiotherapists to treat BCRL and two patient users. The interventional approaches and the familiarization trials for all concerned were moderated under the trained care of these healthcare professionals. Blinding In the chosen study, the researcher was blinded to the allocation process and the resulting interventional outcomes. The probability of the ensuing bias and flaws are thus checked due to such blinding on the part of the researcher. Statistical Methods All the statistical analysis was done through the SPSS version 19 software packages setting the level of significance at p0.05. To maintain homogeneity baseline data were evaluated. Distribution of data was noted with the help of histogram as well as calculation encompassing 95% of the population and the non-normal distributed data were presented as median, lower quartile and upper quartile. Non-parametric tests were adopted and for median calculation 95% confidence interval (CI) was considered. Results Participant flow The Figure 1 of the article provided necessary information related to the number of participants allocated to each of the groups of IG and CG, the subjects undergoing approved intended treatments with the outcomes briefed clearly in due course of the weekly follow up trials. Training procedures and the clinical assessment knowledge is also represented diagrammatically in the Figure 1. Recruitment The given study extended for 6 months with the follow up regime fixed for both the IG and CG participants to be at the end of 4th, 12th and 26th weeks. Baseline data for all the participants irrespective of their groups was noted at week 0. For the IG only, exercise technique and sequence followed was monitored at every week of follow up. The outcome variables were constantly assessed in every week for both the groups. Baseline Data Baseline data comprising the demographic and clinical characteristics for each of the participating groups are depicted in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. However, at the week 0 level of the baseline data, no significant differences among the parameters measured were observed for both the CG and IG. Demographic information includes age, ethnicity, occupation in which the participant is involved and the type of work accustomed to. Clinical parameters encompass a wide range of variables from basic height, weight data to data concerning various treatment modalities and experience encountered due to BCRL (Kwan, 2016). Numbers analyzed The number of participants for each of the two analyses carried in case of week 12 and 26 when compared to week 0 varied as depicted in Table 3 and Table 4 of the studied article. In Table 3, the number of total participants is 23 only with 11 belonging to IG and 12 comprising CG. Contrarily, In Table 4, total participants are 22 with the IG having 10 and CG accounting for 12 subjects. One data in case of Table 4 was omitted on the ground of deviating hugely from the mean value, thus posing as an outlier. The final data analysis was thus based upon data retrieved from Table 4 and the implications of such exclusion reflected on the calculated values of the results through the statistical tools. Outcomes and estimation The changes in swollen limb volume over the 6 months data period have been reported as the primary change outcomes. Decline in absolute volume and relative volume has been recorded as a negative value and the increase as positive amount. The Wilcoxon signed rank test exposed significant reduction in terms of relative ELV at week 12 for both the IG and CG. However at week 26, similar investigation for both the groups revealed no statistical significance (p0.05). Exclusion of the ID6 data due to overriding revealed significant difference at week 26 for both groups, although Mann Whitney test provided no statistical significance among the two groups regarding relative ELV change. Further intriguing into the secondary objectives brought to the forefront no significant improvements in the QOL or ROM. The report of the insignificant improvement in the functioning and neurological symptoms as perceived by the IG during week 12 was not continued till week 26 although they reported of having less severe pain in the forearms. Thus, the effects as indicated in the 95% CI is of relevance to extrapolate the findings and the values obtained through proper statistical analysis to a larger fraction of the population in real life (DiSipio, 2013, Dominick, 2013). Discussion Limitations The chosen article was found to have certain limitations, the prime being the sample size considered for the study. The less number of participants taking part in the study stands on the way of concretely defining the positive implications of such effects. Chances of bias due to less sample size remains that cannot be undone with and serve as an obstacle to extrapolate the results to future studies and research. Exclusion of one of the participants data due to overriding effect may also account for omitting and overlooking some vital underpinning that might have contributed to the desired result. Generalisability The hypothesis as opined in the pilot RCT study has the scope of being carried forwarded and to be utilized in the population context. The idea and concept of the chosen study can then only achieve far reaching consequences and harbor positive outcomes to provide respite patients with similar clinical conditions. Interpretation The pivotal theme of the research considers the positive outcomes due to exercise interventions for the BCRL patients. The findings corroborate with other relevant studies as well that suggest exercise as mode of treatment modality to remedy BCRL (Singh, 2015, Cormie, 2015, Bloomquist, 2014, Singh, 2016, Chang, 2013). Exercise regime for cure of BCRL should essentially comprise of resistance exercise in conjunction with compression therapy and surgical interventions wherever applicable. Practically, evidence based practice is vital to nursing profession to encourage better patient outcomes in patients through following of suitable treatment modalities. Thus researches contribute to provision of necessary information regarding particular clinical condition as in the articles case of BCRL, to favor the evidence based practice in real life cases. References: Bloomquist, K., Hayes, S., Adamsen, L., Mller, T., Christensen, K. B., Ejlertsen, B., Oturai, P. (2016). A randomized cross-over trial to detect differences in arm volume after low-and heavy-load resistance exercise among patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer at risk for arm lymphedema: study protocol. BMC cancer, 16(1), 517. Bloomquist, K., Karlsmark, T., Christensen, K. B., Adamsen, L. (2014). Heavy resistance training and lymphedema: Prevalence of breast cancer-related lymphedema in participants of an exercise intervention utilizing heavy load resistance training. Acta Oncologica, 53(2), 216-225. Brown, J. C., Cheville, A. L., Tchou, J. C., Harris, S. R., Schmitz, K. H. (2014). Prescription and adherence to lymphedema self-care modalities among women with breast cancer-related lymphedema. Supportive Care in Cancer, 22(1), 135-143. Chang, C. J., Cormier, J. N. (2013). Lymphedema interventions: exercise, surgery, and compression devices. In Seminars in oncology nursing (Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 28-40). WB Saunders. Cormie, P., Pumpa, K., Galvo, D. A., Turner, E., Spry, N., Saunders, C., Newton, R. U. (2013). Is it safe and efficacious for women with lymphedema secondary to breast cancer to lift heavy weights during exercise: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 7(3), 413-424. Cormie, P., Singh, B., Hayes, S., Peake, J. M., Galvo, D. A., Taaffe, D. R., Newton, R. U. (2015). Acute Inflammatory Response to Low-, Moderate-, and High-Load Resistance Exercise in Women With Breast CancerRelated Lymphedema. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 1534735415617283. DiSipio, T., Rye, S., Newman, B., Hayes, S. (2013). Incidence of unilateral arm lymphoedema after breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The lancet oncology, 14(6), 500-515. Dominick, S. A., Madlensky, L., Natarajan, L., Pierce, J. P. (2013). Risk factors associated with breast cancer-related lymphedema in the WHEL Study. Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 7(1), 115-123. Fu, M. (2014). Breast cancer-related lymphedema. World Journal of Clinical Oncology, 5(3), 241-247. Haen, R. (2012). Breast cancer related lymphedema (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oxford). Huang, T. W., Tseng, S. H., Lin, C. C., Bai, C. H., Chen, C. S., Hung, C. S., Tam, K. W. (2013). Effects of manual lymphatic drainage on breast cancer-related lymphedema: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. World journal of surgical oncology, 11(1), 1. Jeffs, E., Wiseman, T. (2013). Randomised controlled trial to determine the benefit of daily home-based exercise in addition to self-care in the management of breast cancer-related lymphoedema: a feasibility study.Supportive Care in Cancer,21(4), 1013-1023. Kwan, M. L., Yao, S., Lee, V. S., Roh, J. M., Zhu, Q., Ergas, I. J., Ambrosone, C. B. (2016). Race/ethnicity, genetic ancestry, and breast cancer-related lymphedema in the Pathways Study. Breast cancer research and treatment, 159(1), 119-129. Loudon, A., Barnett, T., Piller, N., Immink, M. A., Williams, A. D. (2014). BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Yoga management of breast cancer-related lymphoedema: a randomised controlled pilot. Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, 20(3), 215-217. Nelson, N. L. (2016). Breast Cancer-Related Lymphedema and Resistance Exercise: A Systematic Review. Journal of strength and conditioning research/National Strength Conditioning Association. Singh, B., Disipio, T., Peake, J., Hayes, S. C. (2016). Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Exercise for Those With Cancer-Related Lymphedema. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 97(2), 302-315. Singh, B., Newton, R. U., Cormie, P., Galvao, D. A., Cornish, B., Reul-Hirche, H., Hayes, S. C. (2015). Effects of compression on lymphedema during resistance exercise in women with breast cancer-related lymphedema: a randomized, cross-over trial. Lymphology, 48(2), 80-92.

WordPress Sitemap How to Create One, Plus How It Helps With SEO

Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is all about tweaking your content so it’s more attractive to search engines like Google. However, you also need to make sure that Google can find your content in the first place. To help make sure Google indexes all of your content, you can create a WordPress sitemap.A sitemap is a simple file you can add to your website, which lists all of its pages, posts, and so on. It helps search engine bots understand what your content is all about and how it’s organized. You can generate one automatically in a few minutes, and the resulting SEO benefits are often significant.In this guide, we’ll briefly discuss how sitemaps work and why they’re important. Then we’ll show you several plugins you can use to create a WordPress sitemap right away. Let’s take a look! all of your content, you can provide the bots with an XML sitemap. This is an organized list of all the pages on your site:Offering search engine bots a sitem ap helps them to understand your content more quickly. It demonstrates the structure and hierarchy of your site, making it clear what pages are most important and which are interrelated. In addition, a sitemap ensures that the bots will actually see every page on your site.For these reasons, sitemaps can have a significant positive effect on the success of your SEO strategy. According to Google, sitemaps are most important for sites that are very large, don’t use many internal links, are new, or incorporate a lot of media. However, a sitemap can serve as a solid addition to any website – especially because it’s so easy to create one.How to add a WordPress sitemap to your website (using 3 plugins)If you’re building or running a WordPress website, creating a sitemap should be a priority. Fortunately, there are a lot of options for adding sitemaps – most of which involve plugins.In fact, so many SEO-focused plugins include sitemap functionality that y ou’ll want to be careful not to have more than one devoted to the task. If you end up with multiple sitemaps, you risk confusing the search engine bots.Before implementing one of the following solutions, therefore, you’ll want to check and see if any of your current plugins have already generated a sitemap for you. If not, or if you don’t have an installed SEO plugin yet, we recommend using one of the following options. They all produce essentially the same results.1. Yoast SEO Yoast SEO Author(s): Team YoastCurrent Version: 12.3Last Updated: October 15, 2019wordpress-seo.12.3.zip 98%Ratings 200,063,756Downloads WP 4.9+Requires Yoast SEO is a staple of many WordPress sites. Chances are you already know how it can help improve your content’s rankings. What you may not realize is that it also creates a sitemap to bolster your SEO even further.Once Yoast is installed on your site, you can navigate to SEO General and select the Features tab. There, y ou’ll find a setting called XML sitemaps:This option is activated by default. As long as it’s set to On, Yoast will generate a WordPress sitemap and keep it up-to-date for you. If you hover over the question mark icon, you can even see what the sitemap looks like.While most users can stop here, you are able to customize what appears in your sitemap if you wish. To do this, navigate to SEO Search Appearance and click on Content Types:If you select No for the option Show Posts in search results, posts will be removed from your sitemap. This also applies to the similar setting for Pages right below, as well as the corresponding options in the Taxonomies and Archives tabs.2. All in One SEO Pack All in One SEO Pack Author(s): Michael TorbertCurrent Version: 3.2.9Last Updated: September 26, 2019all-in-one-seo-pack.3.2.9.zip 88%Ratings 61,774,317Downloads WP 4.7+Requires Like Yoast, All in One SEO Pack is an incredibly popular SEO-focused plugin. It performs a lot of crucial tasks automatically, such as informing search engines about changes to your site, optimizing titles, generating tags, and creating a sitemap.With the plugin installed on your site, head to All in One SEO Feature Manager. Then, find the XML Sitemaps option:Just click on the box to activate the feature. That’s all you need to do to automatically generate a WordPress sitemap.You can also customize your sitemap, if you want to, in the new section labeled XML Sitemap (under All in One SEO):Here, you can decide what types of content will be included in your sitemap, schedule updates to it, and even add pages manually. You can also take a look at the results in the Sitemap Status section.3. XML Sitemap Google News Feeds XML Sitemap Google News Author(s): RavanHCurrent Version: 5.2.6Last Updated: October 9, 2019xml-sitemap-feed.5.2.6.zip 88%Ratings 1,667,697Downloads WP 4.6+Requires As we mentioned, plenty of SEO plugins besides Yoast and All in One SEO Pack inclu de sitemap functionality. If, for whatever reason, you don’t want to add one of these tools to your site, you can create a WordPress sitemap using a dedicated plugin instead.XML Sitemap Google News Feeds is one of the better options, with excellent recent reviews and consistent updates. In addition to generating customizable sitemaps, it can also be used to create sitemaps  specifically designed for Google News content.After installing the plugin, visit Settings Reading in your dashboard. You’ll see an option to enable one or both types of sitemap:Select XML Sitemap, and click on Save Changes at the bottom of the screen. This will automatically generate your sitemap, which you can see by clicking on View next to the option you just enabled. In addition, you’ll find a number of settings you can use to include or exclude specific types of content from the sitemap:The default settings should suffice for most sites, but feel free to tweak them if you want. Just remember to hit Save Changes again when you’re done.How to get your WordPress sitemap noticed quicklyYou can simply create a WordPress sitemap, and the search engine bots will find it eventually. However, you can also speed up the process by submitting your new sitemap to Google Search Console.This works no matter what plugin you used above. Simply head to the Search Console home page, and add your website as a new property if you haven’t already. Then select the property and navigate to Crawl Sitemaps:Choose the Add/Test Sitemap button, paste in the link to your sitemap, and click on Submit. This should help Google find your sitemap quickly. You can revisit this page in a few hours to see whether your sitemap is now listed, which will let you know your submission was successful.If you want more detailed instructions, we have a whole article dedicated to Google Search Console and WordPress.ConclusionSome of your site’s most important features are the ones human visitors will never even see. Once you’ve created a WordPress sitemap, it will run quietly in the background, helping bots make sense of your content and improving your SEO results.What’s more, generating a WordPress sitemap is simple. You can do so using the following plugins:Yoast SEOAll in One SEO PackXML Sitemap Google News FeedsDo you have any questions about how to add a sitemap to WordPress? Ask away in the comments section below! How to create a #WordPress sitemap, plus how a sitemap boosts your site's #SEO

Polito 1 Chris Polito Paola Brown Eng102 25 March Essays - Family

Polito 1 Chris Polito Paola Brown Eng102 25 March Essays - Family Polito 1 Chris Polito Paola Brown Eng102 25 March 2008 Single Parent Struggle For many years, children growing up in a single parent family have been viewed as different. Being raised by only one parent seems impossible to many yet over the decades it has become more prevalent. In today's society many children have grown up to become emotionally stable and successful whether they had one or two parents to show them the rocky path that life bestows upon all human beings. The problem lies in the difference of children raised by single parents versus children raised by both a mother and a father. Does a child need both parents? Does a young boy need a father figure around? Does the government provide help for single parents? What role do step-parents and step-siblings play? With much speculation, this topic has become a very intriguing argument. What people must understand is that properly raising a child does not rely on the structure of a family but should be more focused on the proce ss or values that are taught to these children as they learn to mature. Children of single parents can be just as progressive with emotional, social and behavioral skills as those with two parents. People claim that the only way for children to gain full emotional and behavioral skills is to be raised by both a mother and a father. When a topic such as this one has a broad amount of variables it is impossible to simply link these problems to only having one parent. In the article, "Single-parent families cause juvenile crime", author Robert L. Maginnis states, "Children from single-parent families are more likely to have behavior Polito 2 problems because they tend to lack economic security and adequate time with parents". The simple statement that raw criminals are products of single-parent adolescence is absurd. What this writer must understand is that it can be extremely difficult for one parent to raise a child by themselves for many reasons. A single-parent must work full time to be able to afford to provide for themselves and their child. They must also be able to still have time to offer an exuberant amount of emotional time for the well being of their child. However, even though this may seem impossible, it can be done. As this subject continues to be looked down on people must realize that single parents are becoming more common in today's world. Since 1995 the American family structure for children ages fourteen to eighteen consists of forty-two percent living in a first marriage family with both parents, twenty-two percent living in a second marriage step-family, twenty-one percent living in a single parent, divorced or separated family, six percent living in a single parent never married family and three percent living in a single parent widowed family. This is an extremely scary statistic considering that fiftyeight percent of children in America are living in a single parent family. This is a chilling percentage because it shows how little faith is put into a relationship before actually deciding to have children. Unfortunately not all single-parents take the time to perform the vital tasks needed to raise their children. Parents who think they would never be able to provide emotional stability for their children by themselves should have taken the time to think this through before deciding to become parents. Accidents may happen once in awhile but in most cases adults know what is at stake when planning to have a child. Plain and simple, if you're not ready, than don't do it. If you do decide to have this child Polito 3 and you love this child, then you can be a good parent. There are many ways to enhance the well being of your child if you simply apply yourselves as parents. Magginnis later states that, "Boys who do not have fathers as male role models suffer especially". While it is extremely important for a male child to have his father around, there are other ways of teaching a young boy the lessons he needs to become a man. I know from personal experience that what the author of this article is trying to convey is wrong.

Cigerate money in POW camp Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cigerate money in POW camp - Essay Example Cigarettes qualified as money because it acted as a standard of deferred payment. Some buyers took commodities on credit with a promise of paying an agreed number of cigarettes in the future. Just like modern currency, cigarette money acted as a store of value so that buyers could keep their extra purchasing power for use when the Red Cross issue arrived. Traders accumulated cigarette money to help them purchase more stock when commodities arrived (Radford 5). The fact that cigarettes served both as money and as a smoke was a factor that led to the debasement of cigarette money. Buyers in the P.O.W camp savoured high quality cigarettes for smoking and only used those that were of low quality for trading. The method used in making different cigarette brands was another factor in the debasement of cigarette money. For example, machine-made cigarettes that were supplied by Red Cross could afford more than hand-rolled cigarettes. Lack of homogeneity in the worth of certain cigarettes led to the debasement of cigarette money. For example, some hand-rolled cigarettes were doubted for low quality and extreme thinness and some sellers would reject them. The cunningness of buyers in P.O.W camp to try to maximize on the few available cigarettes led them dismantling big machine-made cigarettes in order to make many smaller ones. Price fluctuations affected the stability of cigarette money and it would fall in value when prices went up (Radford 5). Like in modern economic times, a fall in the value of cigarette money was one of the factors that caused inflation in P.O.W camp. The decrease of the value of cigarette money led to inflation because some traders felt that they needed to charge more in order to realize meaningful profits. The anticipation and arrival of commodities in the P.O.W camp was another contributing factor for inflation. This manifested in price hikes when the day of the arrival of commodities

Unfair Terms in the Contracts and Exclusion of Liabilities Essay

Unfair Terms in the Contracts and Exclusion of Liabilities - Essay Example This may be due to the lack of a precise definition of the term ‘reasonableness’ under the provisions of the Act, the lack of which   that gave enormous freedom to the courts to decide on the reasonableness depending on the particular circumstances of the individual cases. Moreover the courts distinguished between the business transactions and the goods or services supplied to the consumers to decide on the reasonableness of the cases which enhanced the complexity of the issues arising from the operations of the Act. But it is certain that the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 considers the invalidation of the limitations and exclusions of the liabilities arising out of the operation of the standard written terms of business in case they are found to be unfair or unreasonable. This would leave the contractors facing an unlimited liability with respect to any issues arising during the course of construction process with the developers or the employers as the case may be. T he Court of Appeal has recognized the reasonableness of the claim for exclusion of the liability of an IT supplier in the case of Watford Electronics v Sanderson. In this case Lord Justice Chadwick observed that â€Å"where experienced businessmen representing substantial companies of equal bargaining power negotiate an agreement, they should be taken to be the best judges of the commercial fairness of that agreement. The court should in these circumstances be slow to intervene to substitute its own judgment.†Ã‚   Thus the decision of the Court of Appeal had acted.

Determine the distribution of shear force, bending moment and stress Essay

Determine the distribution of shear force, bending moment and stress due to bending in simply supported beams - Essay Example to Identify the measurements to be taken, they should be variables and they both should be able to be measured at the same time (the measurements should be as specific as possible to reduce variation and increase the chance of higher correlation). The third part is to make 50 to 100 pairs of the measurement, ensure that the measurements are as steady as possible so as they do not interfere with the final figures. The next step will be to plot the measured pairs on a scatter Diagram, plot them to give maximum visual spread points; this may involve using different scales and making the axes cross at non-zero value. The last step is that the diagram will be seen and it should be interpreted and action taken accordingly Sketch graphs of shear force and bending moment distribution and validation of calculations by alternative checking methods, plus analysis of safety factor for a chosen material, incorporating referenced additional data, are required for M/D criteria. The strength of a correlation is determined in various statistical angles. It is in this aspect that this Correlation, which is represented by the value that fall between, values of -1.00 to +1.00. If the value is 1 positive or negative it means it is a perfect correlation, this rarely occurs as it means that when the variables both change with the same magnitude, while a correlation of 0 means that there is no relationship between the two variables. A correlation of .8, .9 or even .7 is a strong correlation and it means that there is a great relationship between the scores of one variables and the other, while a correlation of .2 or .3 is a weak correlation meaning that there are some relationships between two variables a but it is a weak one. Q1: Select a standard rolled steel I-section for the simply supported beam shown in figure below. Select an appropriate factor of safety and material strength. Include references for all source information employed. The self-weight of the beam itself may be

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) was among the last in the long line of classical economists associated with the Cambridge School. Pigou first entered Kings College, Cambridge on a Minor Scholarship in History and Modern Languages (1896). Observing his palpable brilliance, Alfred Marshall and Henry Sidgwick together encouraged him to pour his academic vigour into the study of political economy (Collard, 1981). Although significantly influenced by Henry Sidgwick, Pigou was foremost Marshalls disciple and is often considered the embodiment and extension of Marshall himself (Walker, 1989). Like Marshall, Pigou was attracted to the practical value of economics and believed the main purpose of learning economics was to be able to see through the bogus economic arguments of politicians (Champernowne, 1959: 264); he believed economics to be an instrument for social betterment not intellectual gymnastics. The numerous works by Pigou cover various fields of economic thought. Pigous marked interest in how government policy could increase national well-being? is apparent throughout his work and led him to invented much of modern public finance especially arguments and rationale for government intervention in the economy (Pressman, 1999). Furthermore, his notable contribution, Economics of Welfare (1932) occupies a unique position in the history of economic thought and has earned him recognition as the father of modern welfare economics (Groenewegen, 2003). A study into Pigous writings on the economics of welfare requires one to be selective due to the wide-ranging scope of topics that may be covered; this paper will therefore concentrate on the theoretical backbone of Pigous work and aim to analyse different critiques of his theory of welfare in Section I. Section II will consider the foundations of and influences on Pigous work and explore criticisms of a lack of originality in his writ ings. Finally, in Section III, we will investigate the Pigous position on government intervention and analyse his suggested policy prescriptions. SECTION I Welfare economics is concerned to investigate the dominant influence through which the economic welfare of the world, or of a particular country, is likely to be increased. The hope of those who pursue it is to suggest lines of action or non-action on the part of the State or of private persons that might foster such influences (Pigou 1951: 287) Welfare economics is a normative subject, distinct from positive economics. Whilst the theoretical elements of positive economics provide theorems that can be tested, normative economics and the propositions of welfare economics have altogether a very different content (Graff, 1957: 2). The difference between normative and positive theory becomes apparent when we attempt to determine whether welfare actually increases or not; analysis of a positive theory requires testing of its conclusions which are clearly observable, conversely to test a normative theory of welfare one must look to test its assumptions rather than conclusions since welfare is not an observable quantity. Thus the assumptions attached to a normative theory must be carefully and thoroughly scrutinised and the credibility of a theory of welfare depends on how realistic and relevant its assumptions are (Graff, 1957: 3). This section will, in turn analyse the major assumptions made by Pigou for the development of his co ncepts of economic welfare and national dividend which are key to his theory. Economic Welfare Pigou defined economic welfare subjectively as quantities of satisfaction or states of consciousnessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[with] psychic returns of satisfaction, (Pigou 1926: 10). Recognising that subsequent investigation into the causes that could affect welfare would be impracticable, he limits the scope of the inquiry to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring-rod of money (Pigou 1926: 11). To justify the restrictions on his scope of elements compiling the social welfare he postulates that since a persons income is an observable money value, it could be inferred that, under certain conditions, people could enjoy a level of material welfare that could be purchased by their income (Mishan, 1969). The connection between increased income and the other elements of welfare is much harder to define therefore Pigou explicitly recognises that since economic welfare is only a part of welfare as a wholeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦so that a given change in economic welfare will seldom synchronise with an equal welfare as a whole (Pigou, 1926: 12). Thus, although a change in economic welfare may not measure the change in total welfare, it may always affect the change therefore Pigou concludes that economic welfare and total welfare are positively related (Durlauf and Blume, 2008). UTILITY DEBATE? Doesnt he assume something stupid about utility interpersonal utility or something? National Dividend The conception of the National Dividend is not an academic toy, but a practical instrument of great power designed for service in the concrete solution of social problems (Pigou, 1912: 493) In order to predict the effects of policies on material welfare at the aggregate level, an aggregate measure was required. Pigou identified the national dividend as the appropriate aggregate measure suggesting that economic causes act on the economic welfare of any country, not directly, but through the making and using of the objective counterpart of economic welfare which the economists call the national dividend (Pigou, 1926: 31). The national dividend is described as the flow of goods and services annually produced after maintaining capital intact and is a key concept for Pigous analyses of how policies or institutions affect economic welfare (Scott, 1984: 59). Pigou outlines the two criteria for detecting improvements in social welfare which reflect the importance of this key concept to his theory of welfare; firstly increases in the value of national dividend, provided the share for the poor is not thereby reduced, will result in an increase in social welfare. Secondly, transfe rs from the rich to the poor without any reduction in the national dividend will also yield higher social welfare (Pigou, 1926). Several critics have voiced opposition to Pigous definition of national dividend specifically on the issue of maintaining capital intact.  [1]  He states that if the quantity of every unit of a countrys capital stock remains unchanged over a certain period, then even is the money value has increased/decreased, the total capital stock has been exactly maintained. He argues that changes in the money value of the stock due to general price changes or changes in the rates of interest are irrelevant to the national dividend (Scott, 1984: 60). Only a decline in the physical quantity of capital has to be made good (or replaced) with new capital of the same value (provided the valuation is made when the deterioration actually takes place) and depreciation due to interest rates or price changes are irrelevant (Pigou, 1926: 46). The national income in any period is therefore the sum of consumption and gross investment minus that portion of gross investment necessary to maintain capital int act (Scott, 1984; Pigou, 1926). Myint (1948) highlights the inadequacies of transposing this concept of maintaining capital intact (which is essentially a physical level of analysis) to derive the value of capital from expected value of income yielded (essentially a subjective level of analysis) by merely making good the physical wear and tear (Myint, 1948: 174). He finds fault with the fact that depreciation (due to obsolescence  [2]  ) must be allowed for even if capital goods are in perfect condition. This issue also sparked a heated debate between Hayek (1941) and Pigou (1941) in which Hicks (1942) also intervened. Hayek attacked Pigou on this point stating, what is meant by maintaining capital intact [according to Pigou] consists in effect of the suggestion that for this purpose we should disregard obsolescence [whether it is due to foreseeable or unforeseeable causes] and require merely that such losses of value of the existing stock of capital goods be made good as are due to physical wear and tear (Haye k, 1941: 276). Hayek finds Pigous procedure neither useful theoretically nor in actual practice (Hayek, 1941: 276). The root of the disagreement lies in their different conceptions of depreciation; while Pigou maintains that only a decline in the present value of capital due to factors which affect the expected quantity is relevant whilst Hayek argues the the real problem of maintaining capital intact arises not after such losses have been made, but when the entrepreneur plans his investment (Hayek, 1941: thus a decline in expected quantity will count as depreciation regardless of whether it is due to factors affecting expected quantity or prices (Hill, 1999: 2). While Hayeks biting criticism seemingly undermines Pigous conception of national dividend, Scott (1984) contends both arguments are in fact sound and it is the purpose for which the definition is of critical importance; whilst Pigou was concerned with net social income, Hayek was referring essentially to individual people o r firms. READ HICKS ADDITION TO THE DEBATE AND ADD IN WHAT HE SAYS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE IN PURPOSES FOR THE CONCEPT. SECTION II When a man sets out upon any course of inquiry, the object of his search may be either light or fruit either knowledge for its own sake or knowledge for the sake of good things to which it leads, (Pigou, 1926: 3) Pigou is widely considered the father of modern welfare economics and the basic concepts of early welfare theory are attributed to his work, Economics of Welfare (1926). However, there are commentators who speculate that no matter how innovative Pigou may have been, many of his major theoretical contributions to welfare analysis lacked originality and were based on pre-Marshallian concepts; ODonnell (1979) implies Henry Sidgwick is a major influence who is not attributed sufficient credit. ODonnell (1979) argues that as a firm follower of Marshall, Pigou utilised his marginal analyses of market processes. However, they differed on their beliefs in the ability of competitive markets and economic freedom to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty; Marshall was confident that competitive markets, left alone, would lead to efficient allocation and that government intervention would create so many disincentives that it may cause more harm than good (Walker, 1989). Conversely Pigou argued that fairness is only to be achieved through extensive government intervention. Moreover, when Pigou (1926, 1928) sought to formalise the problems of market failure and the appropriate government solutions, he turned to Sigdwicks earlier propositions on government intervention. More than half a century before Pigou, Sidgwick and J. S. Mill initiated the transition from the non-interventionist approach of the classical tradition to the more interventionist orientation that characterised neoclassical welfare theory and influenced Pigous theory of welfare (Medema, 2007). Subsequently it is argued that in defining welfare and the general qualifications for a welfare criterion (wherein the similarities between basic welfare considerations of Pigou and Sidgwick are obvious), Pigou is not original (ODonnell, 1979). He was, however, genuinely innovative in introducing the terms Marginal Social Net Product (MSNP) and Marginal Private Net Product (MPNP); although Sidgwick (1897) expressed similar conclusions about divergences between private and social benefits marginal considerations were not part of his analysis and his generalised concept was not as concise as Pigous (ODonnell, 1979). Therefore, whilst Pigous contribution to welfare economics is undeniable, he is criticised for developing what is essentially a synthesis of ideas and analyses from Marshall and Sidgwick. Yet, if we again invoke the purpose for his inquiry and his beliefs about the practical use of economics, the fruits of his contribution yielded an expansive literature on not only welfare economics but also public finance and environmental economics for which he is undeniably responsible; the purpose isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the fabric of theory shall be a yielding garment, fitting the varied and complex reality of economic life as closely as is demanded by the criterion that the conclusions to which the theory leads shall be both useful and general (Young, 1913: 686). SECTION III The working of self-interest is generally beneficent, not because of some natural coincidence between the self-interest of each and the good of all, but because human institutions are arranged so as to compel self-interest to work in directions in which it will be beneficent (Cannan in Pigou, 1926: 130) We move now to the subject of government intervention in the economy. In his relatively unknown essay on State Action and Laissez-Faire Pigou stated the real question is not whether the State should act or not, but on what principles, in what degree and over what departments of economic life its action should be carried on (Pigou in Medema, 2009: 65). In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou controversially advocates the need for government intervention in the form of taxes and bounties to correct for market failures and our defective telescopic faculty. External Economies In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou originated the innovative theoretical distinction between social and private benefits and costs, illustrating how private production costs for a firm do not necessarily reflect total social costs of production. This analysis formed the basis for much of the analysis in modern environmental economics (Myint 1948). He states that when value of MSNP (marginal physical product of the factor as appropriated by the producer * market price of product) is greater than MSNP (total of products and services from employment of the additional factor no matter to whom they may accrue) external economies exist and the government must intervene in the market to ensure the industry contracts the optimum output may be reached and economic welfare may thus be maximised (Pigou, 1926). Coase what coase said economists have tended to overestimate the advantages of government intervention and that such intervention may not actually be desirable in certain situations? Monopolies Pigou says that monopolies are bad and that governments should intervene to make sure they dont overrun? Something like this? But people argue against that and say that this is not good and his assumptions are wrong! CONCLUSION General optimum and national dividend are major elements that constitute his theory of welfare. Section I National Dividend National Dividend and General Optimum National Dividend he outlines the national dividend which is defined as _______. Is very important because it is the measure he outlines as the aggregate indicator of welfare. Discussion Hayek criticised his conception of the national dividend because of his assumption of Maintaining capital intact stating that __________________ General Optimum and Criterion for welfare maximisation He says that anything that increases the national dividend, so long as it doesnt reduce the share going to the poor will increase total welfare and anything that increases the share of the poor so long as it doesnt affect the national dividend, will also increase welfare. Discussion Buchanan (http://www.heinonline.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlecono2id=1size=2collection=journalsindex=journals/jlecono#126) outlines the difference between Pigous optimum and Paretos optimum ODonnell criticises Pigou for lack of originality, claiming that he has basically created a synthesis of Pre-Marshallian ideas and Marshallian analysis (the only thing original being his contribution of MSNP and MPNP). Myint criticises Pigou for trying to impose Marshalls physical analysis onto what should be a subjective level of analysis: since welfare theory, as argued by graff, is a normative theory. Section II External Effects Pigou basically says that private firms do not always take into account the Monopolies MONOPOLIES 6. I do not propose to say very much in this paper about the welfare economics of monopoly and imperfect competition, for this is altogether too large a subject to be capable of useful treat- ment on the scale here available. A very large part of the estab- lished theory of imperfect competition falls under the head of welfare economics, and it is actually much the strongest part of the theory which does so. Considered as a branch of positive economics, the theory of imperfect competition is even now not very convincing; the assumption that the individual producer has a clear idea of the demand curve confronting him has been justifiably questioned, and the presence of intractable elements of oligopoly in most markets has been justifiably suspected. When it is considered as a branch of welfare economics, the theory of imperfect competition has a much clearer status. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition fall into their places as reasons for the inequality between price and marginal c ost, whose consequences are then a most fertile field for study along welfare lines. It is perhaps rather to be regretted that modern theories of imperfect competition have not been cast more overtly into this form; for the general apparatus of welfare economics would have made it possible to state some of the most important pro- positions in a more guarded way than usual. Take, for example, the very important question of the optimum number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry, which is so near the centre of modern discussion. Since (ex hypothesi) the different firms are producing products which are economicaly distinguishable, the question is one of those which falls under the heading of our third set of optimum conditions-the totl conditions; we have to ask whether a reduction in the number of products would be conducive to a movement towards the optimum. Suppose then that a particular firm is closed down. The loss involved im its cessation is measured by the compensati on which would have to be given to consumers to make up for their loss of the opportunity to consume the missing product, plus the compensation which would have to be given to producers to make up for the excess of their earnings in this use over what they could earn in other uses. The loss is therefore measured by Marshalls Surplus (Consumers Surplus 1 plus Producers Surplus). Under conditions of perfect competition, this loss is a net loss. For when the factors are transferred to other uses, they will have to be scattered about at the margins of those uses; and (since the earnings of a factor equal the value of its marginal product) the additional production made possible by the use of the factors in these new places is equal in value to the earnings of the factors (already accounted for). Under perfect competition, the marginal productivity law ensures that there is no producers surplus generated at the new margins; while, since the marginal unit of any commodity is worth no more than what is paid for it, there can be no consumers surplus either. Thus there is nothing to set against the initial loss; there cannot be a movement towards the optimum if the number of products is reduced. But if competition is imperfect, there is something to set on the other side. The earnings of a factor are now less than the value of its marginal product by an amount which varies with the degree of monopolistic exploitation; and therefore the increment to production which can be secured by using the factors at other margins is worth more than the earnings of the factors. There is a producers surplus, even at the margin, and this producers surplus may outweigh the initial loss. The general condition for a particular firm to be such that its existence is compatible with the optimum is that the sum of the consumers and producers surpluses generated by its activities must be greater than the producers surplus which would be generated by employing its factors (and exploiting them) elsewhere. The rule usually given is a special case of this general rule. If entry to the industry is free, price equals average cost, and the producers surplus generated by the firm as a whole can be neglected. If the products of the different firms are very cl ose substitutes, or merely distinguished by irrational pre- ferences, consumers surplus can perhaps be neglected as well. With these simplifications, the number of firms in an impe competitive industry is always excessive, so long as price is greater than marginal cost anywhere in the industry. (Or, if we can retain the identity of price with average cost, the number of firms is excessive until average cost is reduced to a minimum.) These, however, are simplifications; it is not always true that the number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry is excessive, though very often it may be. Before recommending in practice a policy of shutting down redundant firms, we ought to be sure that the full condition is satisfied; and we ought to be very sure that the discarded factors will in fact be transferred to more productive uses. In a world where the most the economist can hope for is that he will be listened to occasionallY, that is not always so certain. In the absence of costs of movement the allocation of resources by competitive markets achieves universally equal marginal private net products. However, the production of ideal output requires equality of marginal social net products. Where private and social net products diverge, there is a prima facie case for reallocation of resources (Economics of welfare page 136) The Economics of Welfare Pigous major work, Wealth and Welfare (1912) and Economics of Welfare (1920), developed Alfred Marshalls concept of externalities (see Pigou, 1920), costs imposed or benefits conferred on others that are not taken into account by the person taking the action. Pigou attributed welfare gains to the greater marginal utility a dollar of income had for the poor compared to the rich; a transfer of income from rich to poor increased total utility that could also be defined as increased quality of life. Pigou also argued that welfare gains came from improving the quality of the work force through changes in the distribution of income or by improved working conditions. He argued that the existence of externalities was sufficient justification for government intervention. The reason was that if someone was creating a negative externality, such as pollution, he would engage in too much of the activity that generated the externality. Someone creating a positive externality, say, by educating himself and thus making himself more interesting to other people, would not invest enough in his education because he would not perceive the value to himself as being as great as the value to society. To discourage the activity that caused the negative externality, Pigou advocated a tax on the activity. To encourage the activity that created the positive externality, he advocated a subsidy. These are now called Pigovian (or Pigovian) taxes and subsidies. Let us now consider two excerpts that typify Pigous social policy, mentioned above: One person A, in the course of rendering some service, for which payments is made, to a second person B, incidentally also renders services or disservices to other personsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ of such sort that payment cannot be exacted from benefited parties or compensation enforced on behalf of the injured parties (Pigou 1932). It is possible for the State to remove the divergence [between private and social net product] through bounties and taxes (Pigou 1932). In the Economics of Welfare, Pigou says that his aim is to ascertain how far the free play of self-interest, acting under the existing legal system, tends to distribute the countrys resources in the way most favorable to the production of a large national dividend, and how far it is feasible for State action to improve upon natural tendencies. He starts by referring to optimistic followers of the classical economists who have argued that the value of production would be maximized if the government refrained from any interference in the economic system and the economic arrangements were those which came about naturally (Pigou 1932). Pigou goes on to say that if self-interest does promote economic welfare, it is because human institutions have been devised to make it so. He concludes: But even in the most advanced States there are failures and imperfections there are many obstacles that prevent a communitys resources from being distributed in the most efficient way. The study of these constitutes our present problem its purpose is essentially practical. It seeks to bring into clearer light some of the ways in which it now is, or eventually may become, feasible for governments to control the play of economic forces in such wise as to promote the economic welfare, and through that, the total welfare, of their citizens as a whole (Pigou 1932). Pigous thoughts are further elucidated: Some have argued that no State action is needed. But the system has performed as well as it has because of State action: Nonetheless, there are still imperfections. it might happen that costs are thrown upon people not directly concerned, through, say, uncompensated damage done to surrounding woods by sparks from railway engines. All such effects must be included-some of them will be positive, others negative elements-in reckoning up the social net product of the marginal increment of any volume of resources turned into any use or place (Pigou 1932) To illustrate this discussion further, let us consider an example: Suppose a paper mill was being planned on a certain river and an economist was given all facts about the river-in-question and told that a paper mill was to be sited so that it could discharge oxygen-consuming waste into the river. Suppose further that the economist was asked to analyze the situation, offer a policy for siting the mill, and comment on the practical aspects of adopting the policy proposal as a general rule. The first approach involves an externality analysis, where the paper mill pollutes the river, imposing an unwanted cost on society, a cost that does not enter the mill owners profit calculations. This is the problem of social cost. Following this line of inquiry, failure to consider the external cost leads to too much paper and too little environmental quality. This economist would be using an analytical framework developed by A. C. Pigou who would argue that pollution generates a social cost that should be dealt with by the central government. He would propose a system of taxes, bounties, and regulations for resolving the problem. Most likely, the economist using this framework would call for some form of effluent taxes or regulation to control the mills discharge. Pigous solution spoke of market failure and the need for a central authority to fine-tune markets so that the appropriate level of pollution would emerge. This approach called for collection of complicated and rapidly changing information, translating the information into a tax or regulation, and imposing the tax or rule on the polluter. In fact, modern environmental economics began with the work of Arthur Pigou, who developed the analysis of externalities. His name is attached to the traditional policy proposal, Pigouvian taxes on polluting activities, equal to the value of the damages. Coases alternative solution Pigous approach came under attack from Lionel Robbins and Frank Knight. The New Welfare Economics that arose in the late 1930s dispensed with much of Pigous analytical toolbox. Later, the Public Choice theorists rejected Pigous approach for its naive benevolent despot assumption. Finally, Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase demonstrated that efficient outcomes could be generated without government intervention when property rights are clearly defined. Coase presents his case in the article The Problem of Social Cost (1960). To explain this alternative let us continue with the paper mill example. There is a second approach likely taken. In this line of thinking the economist considers the paper mill and others who wish to consume or enjoy water quality as part of a competitive market where people bargain for the use of rights to scarce property. This analysis has nothing to do with polluters imposing cost on society, but everything to do with competing demands for use of an asset. If rights to the asset are defined and assigned to members of the river-basin community, then those planning to build the paper mill must bargain with the rightholders to determine just how much, if any, waste will discharge into the river. If the rights are held by the mill, then the existing communities along the river must bargain with the mill owner for rights to water quality. Again, bargaining determines the amount of discharge to the river. This approach relies on the work of Ronald Coase (1960). Using this framework, an economist might recommend a meeting of the mill owners and others who have access to the river. After organizing the parties, negotiations would ensue. If existing river users owned water-quality rights, the mill would have to buy the rights in order to discharge specified amounts of waste. If the mill had the right to pollute, existing river users would have to buy water quality from the mill, paying the mill to limit its discharges. In other words, Pigouvian taxes do embody the important principle that polluters should pay for the damages they inflict on society. But in both law and economics, a more conservative analysis has gained popularity. Legal scholar Ronald Coase argued that taxes and regulation might be unnecessary, since under some circumstances polluters and those harmed by pollution could engage in private negotiation to determine the appropriate compensation. While Pigous examples of externalities often involved simultaneous harms to large numbers of people, Coases examples tended to be localized, individual nuisances, where one persons behavior disturbed the immediate neighbors. The image of environmental externalities as localized nuisances serves to trivialize the real problems of widespread, collective threats to health and nature. Creative alternative readings of Coase have been suggested at times, but the dominant interpretation of his work has provided an intellectual basis for the retreat fr om regulation. Comparison of Pigous and Coases approaches Evidence of the record of Coases intellectual influence is seen in the count of citations to his 1960 article, which are shown in Yardley (1977). The citation data of Coases (1960) The Problem of Social Cost and Pigous (1932) The Economics of Welfare are superimposed on a count of Federal Register pages for the same years. The data mapping suggests several things. First, Pigous influence on academics seems to operate at a steady state. There is no evidence that Pigovians were responding to the growth of regulation occurring around them. The Coase citations indicate the reverse. References to his ideas seem to be a reaction to th

Goup Decision Making Essay -- Managing Management Business Essays

Group Decision Making Let?s define what is Group Decision Making, decisions made by committees, think tanks, teams and groups. They may include borrowers, lenders, producers, buyers, scientists and other experts, environmentalists, and real estate developers and so on. Decision making skills is one of the most important aspects of management. It involves personal and interpersonal skills, fact finding, logical thinking, creativity, analytical ability, sensitivity to others and assertiveness What are the key steps in making a decision? Whether decisions are straightforward or complex, a systematic approach will lead to success. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Setting objectives An objective is a specific step, a milestone, which enables you to accomplish a goal. Setting objectives involves a continuous process of research and decision-making. Knowledge of yourself and your unit is a vital starting point in setting objectives. Strategic planning takes place at the highest levels; other managers are involved with operational planning. The first step in operational planning is defining objectives - the result expected by the end of the budget (or other designated) cycle. Setting right objectives is critical for effective performance management. Such objectives as higher profits, shareholder value, and customer satisfaction may be admirable, but they don't tell managers what to do. They fail to specify priorities and focus. Such objectives don't map the journey ahead - the discovery of better value and solutions for the customer. The objectives must be focused on a result, not an activity, be consistent, be specific, be measurable, be related to time, be attain able. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Collecting information There are several ways to gather information. You can collect information from people, documents, performance data, and observation of events. Also, there are a number of methods for gathering information, including traditional measurement approaches such as tests and ratings, as well as more investigative procedures such as observation, interviews, case studies, and literature review. Each of the chapters in this handbook contains key criteria for the development and use of an effective technology infrastructure. If you employ these criteria as a guide, the first part of your evaluation will really be an audit in the sense that you will be looking retrospectively at the work ... ...sunderstood and sometimes resentful. Second, the minority members often feel that the voting has created two camps within the group and that these camps are now in a win-lose competition: The minority feels that their camp lost the first round, but that it is just a matter of time until it can regroup, pick up some support and win the next time a vote comes up. In other words, voting creates coalitions, and the preoccupation of the losing coalition is not how to implement what the majority wants, but how to win the next battle. If voting is to be used, the group must be sure that it has created a climate in which members feel they have had their day in court--and where all members feel obligated to go along with the majority decision. Summary Complicated issues often require the creation of a complex group and cooperation of the group's members to resolve the issues. In order to achieve consensus between members, the group should employ a facilitator and apply rules and guidelines of behavior. The chances that a diverse group can attain the goal of consensus are greatly increased when the group follows an established set of rules with the assistance of a facilitator.